Have you ever revisited books from your university days and been struck by how much you have forgotten? I had this experience recently, when I found myself perusing some of my old philosophy texts. As I revisited these works, I was reminded of the great thinkers and their ideas that had shaped the way I see the world. It occurred to me that a refresher on the key beliefs of these great philosophers might be useful for others as well. So, I decided to make a list of the great philosophers and their key beliefs.
Here’s my current list, it will be growing over time!:
- Pythagoras (570 BCE – 495 BCE): Known for his mathematical and musical contributions to philosophy. Believed in the idea of reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, and developed the concept of the “Pythagorean theorem” in geometry.
- Socrates (469/470 BCE – 399 BCE): Believed in the importance of questioning everything and engaging in critical thinking in order to arrive at truth. He is famous for his method of questioning, known as the Socratic Method.
- Democritus (460 BCE – 370 BCE): Known for his theory of atomism, which suggests that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles. He also believed in the existence of multiple worlds and the idea of a limitless universe.
- Plato (428/427 BCE – 348/347 BCE): Believed in the existence of a separate world of abstract concepts and ideas, which he called the world of Forms. He also believed in the immortality of the soul and the importance of pursuing knowledge and wisdom.
- Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE): Believed in the importance of reason and empirical observation in understanding the world. He developed the concept of the “golden mean,” which suggests that virtue is achieved through moderation and balance. He also developed a system of logic and categorized all knowledge into various fields of study, including ethics, metaphysics, and politics.
- Epicurus (341 BCE – 270 BCE): Believed in the pursuit of pleasure as the ultimate goal of life, but defined pleasure as the absence of pain rather than the indulgence of desire. He also believed in the importance of self-sufficiency and simplicity in achieving happiness.
- Zeno of Citium (334 BCE – 262 BCE): Founder of the school of philosophy known as Stoicism. Believed in the importance of reason and self-control in achieving personal and social harmony. He argued that individuals should live in accordance with nature and accept their fate without complaint.
- René Descartes (1596 – 1650): Believed in the power of reason and doubted everything that could be doubted, in order to arrive at certain knowledge. He famously declared, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am).
- Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662): Believed in the limitations of human reason, and that faith in God is necessary to understand the universe. He also developed the concept of Pascal’s Wager, which argues that it is rational to believe in God even if there is no conclusive evidence for God’s existence.
- Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677): Believed in the unity of God and nature, and that everything that exists is a manifestation of God’s nature. He also argued that human beings can achieve freedom and happiness by understanding their place in the natural world and living in accordance with reason.
- Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679): Believed in the importance of a strong central government to maintain social order and prevent chaos. He argued that humans are inherently self-interested and competitive, and that without a social contract to restrain them, life would be “nasty, brutish, and short.”
- David Hume (1711 – 1776): Believed that all knowledge comes from experience, and that there is no such thing as innate knowledge or ideas. He also argued that moral judgments are based on emotions rather than reason, and that there is no objective basis for moral values.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778): Believed that humans are naturally good, but that society corrupts them. He argued that a just society should be based on the “general will” of the people, and that individuals should be free to pursue their own interests within the context of the community.
- Edmund Burke (1729 – 1797): Believed in the importance of tradition and the preservation of established institutions. He argued that society should be cautious in embracing radical change, and that progress should be slow and incremental rather than rapid and revolutionary.
- Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804): Believed that knowledge is shaped by our own minds and that our perceptions are necessarily limited by the structure of our minds. He also developed the concept of the categorical imperative, a moral principle that states that one should only act in ways that could be universalized without contradiction.
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 – 1831): Believed in the importance of historical progress, and that human history is driven by a dialectical process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. He also developed the concept of the “Geist” or Spirit, which he saw as the driving force behind history.
- Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 – 1829): Believed in the idea of evolution before Charles Darwin, and argued that organisms can change over time in response to their environment. He also believed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics, which suggests that traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime can be passed down to its offspring.
- John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873): Believed in the importance of individual freedom and the pursuit of happiness. He argued that actions should be evaluated based on the harm or benefit they produce, and he was a strong advocate for women’s rights and other progressive causes.
- Karl Marx (1818 – 1883): Believed in the importance of class struggle and the overthrow of capitalism in order to create a more just society. He argued that history is driven by economic forces, and that the proletariat (the working class) must seize the means of production and establish a socialist society.
- Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 – 1900): Believed in the rejection of traditional morality and the idea of the “superman” or “ubermensch” who creates his own values. He argued that the human condition is marked by a fundamental conflict between the Apollonian and Dionysian aspects of human nature, and that individuals must confront the meaninglessness of existence in order to create their own values.
- William James (1842 – 1910): Believed that truth is what works in practice, and that knowledge is constantly evolving based on new experiences and evidence. He also developed the concept of pragmatism, which emphasizes the practical consequences of ideas and actions.
- John Dewey (1859 – 1952): Believed in the importance of education and the power of democracy to promote social progress. He argued that knowledge should be based on experience, and that education should be focused on preparing individuals to participate in democratic society.
- Martin Heidegger (1889 – 1976): Believed that the question of being (i.e., what it means to exist) is the central question of philosophy. He also argued that human beings are “thrown” into the world without their consent, and that they must confront their own mortality and finitude in order to find meaning in life.
- Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 – 1980): Believed that human beings are fundamentally free and responsible for their own lives. He developed the concept of existentialism, which emphasizes the importance of individual choice and the search for meaning in life.
- Michel Foucault (1926 – 1984): Believed in the importance of power and its pervasive influence on society. He argued that power is not just held by governments and other formal institutions, but is also present in everyday social relationships and practices. He also developed the concept of “discipline” as a mechanism of social control and the “panopticon” as a metaphor for modern surveillance societies.
- Simone de Beauvoir (1908 – 1986): Believed that women are oppressed by patriarchal society and that they must reject traditional gender roles in order to achieve true freedom. She famously declared, “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman,” suggesting that gender identity is socially constructed rather than biologically determined.
The great philosophers of history have left us with a wealth of ideas and insights that continue to shape the way we think about the world. From the Greeks to modern thinkers, these philosophers have explored the nature of reality, ethics, politics, and the human condition. Revisiting their works can help us to deepen our understanding of these issues and to appreciate the diversity of human thought.